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Saturday, January 31, 2026
超弹模型曲线拟合中的参数范围
在有限元分析中,有大量需要进行曲线拟合的工作。尤其是在材料领域,当工程师们只有一些材料的离散的测试数据,在给定数值模型后,需要通过对材料实验数据的曲线拟合,才能确定模型中的参数。常见的曲线参数拟合有,超弹材料,塑性材料,粘性材料,和磁芯损耗材料等等。和其他类型的曲线拟合不同的是,这些有限元材料模型的曲线拟合不仅需要误差小,同时要求拟合出的参数物理性正确,而且在后续的非线性有限元计算中,这些参数还需要易于收敛。因此对参数拟合的算法和细节,提出了比较高的要求。
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很少有文章讨论超弹模型参数的取值范围,初始值设定,以及参数值的合理范围。而这些都是开发超弹模型曲线拟合,验证拟合参数合理性的关键。本文从开发的角度,讨论如何更好地实现超弹材料模型的曲线拟合。尤其是参数边界和初始值的设定,以及合理的参数应该符合怎样特征。
由于超弹模型众多,每种超弹模型还有会根据阶数的不同,有多种形式。为了避免混淆,本文按章节分别描述每种超弹模型的计算细节。
1. neo-Hookean
将neo-Hookean作为第一个讨论的模型,是因为neo-Hookean是最经典、最简单的超弹模型之一。很多其他模型,可以在某种特殊参数下, 简化为neo-Hookean模型。其应变能密度函数 W的表达式为
Image
其中μ是剪切模量。 在曲线拟合计算时,要求剪切模量必须大于零,即μ>0。初始值设置为μ0=E/3,杨氏模量E可以从应力-应变曲线在原点附近(应变 < 5%)的斜率获得。
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参数拟合后,可以查验是否符合真实物理,可以参考以下常见超弹材料与μ的近似对应关系。
材料类型
剪切模量 μ (MPa)
极软橡胶
0.3 ~ 0.5
中等硬度橡胶
1.0 ~ 1.5
硬橡胶
3.0 ~ 5.0
生物软组织
0.01 ~ 0.1
如果拟合出的 参数μ与单轴拉伸数据差异很大,说明材料可能表现出明显的第二应变能不变量效应,此时应改用 Mooney-Rivlin 或其他模型。
2. Mooney-Rivlin
Mooney-Rivlin也是在工程分析中最常用的超弹模型之一。是neo-Hookean模型的直接扩展。特点是形式简单且灵活,如果说 neo-Hookean 是超弹界的“入门款”,那么Mooney-Rivlin就是处理中低度变形(100%-200%应变)的“标准款”。 由于其数学形式简单且线性相关于材料常数,在有限元分析(FEA)计算中容易收敛。
根据阶数的不同,Mooney-Rivlin有几种不同的形式,含有不同数量的参数,其中最高阶的9参数模型最为复杂,本节就以九参数Mooney-Rivlin模型为例,讨论参数的范围与初始值设置。其应变能密度函数W也包含了从一次项到三次项的所有组合:
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物理上要求剪切模量μ>0。因此有μ=2(C10+C01)>0,实际计算时最稳妥的约束:C10>0 且C01>=0。在许多橡胶材料中,C10是主导项,而 C01较小。C11 通常也为正值。三阶参数C30>=0。C03, C21, C12可以捕捉极大变形(应变 > 400%)时的急剧硬化。一般比一阶参数小 3-4 个数量级。
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关于初始条件,C10=0.9*(μ0/2),C01 = 0.1*(μ0/2),初始剪切模量 μ0=E/3。C11,C20,C02,C30, C21的初始值往往选择一个很小的值,取C10的0.1%。C12和C03的初始值可以设为零。对于大多数合成橡胶(如 NBR, EPDM, 氯丁橡胶),参数大致遵循以下数量级规律:
阶数分类
参数符号
典型取值范围
一阶 (线性项)
C10, C01
0.1~2.0
二阶 (过渡项)
C20, C11, C02
-0.2~0.2
三阶 (硬化项)
C30, C21, C12, C03
-0.05~0.1
Mooney-Rivin也有一定局限性。当橡胶拉伸到极限(分子链拉直)时,应力会急剧上升(即上翘现象)。Mooney-Rivlin 无法模拟这种高应变下的硬化。如果需要模拟极大的变形(应变 > 300%),建议使用 Ogden 或 Gent 模型。同时,如果实验数据不够全面,建议退而求其次使用参数更少、更鲁棒的模型,如Yoeh模型或5 参数 Mooney-Rivlin模型。
3. Yeoh
Yeoh 超弹模型以其简洁性和稳定性著称,舍弃了受实验误差干扰较大的第二不变量 I2(即 C01 等项),仅保留第一不变量 I1,因此在拟合大变形数据时比 Mooney-Rivlin 模型更加稳健。应变能密度函数 W如下
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常用的Yeoh模型有1-3阶,对应1-3参数。拟合计算时,需要C10>0。如果 C10<= 0,材料将失去抗剪切能力,导致模拟计算立即崩溃。 C20 通常为负,且绝对值不会太大。拟合计算时,可以控制其绝对值大于在C10的1%。C30 为正值,用于捕捉末端硬化 。
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初始值设置也相对简单,C10的初始值为E/6,杨氏模量E是测试数据在小变型时的斜率。C20=-0.1*C10, C30=0.01*C10。
常见材料的Yeoh模型的参数如下:
材料类型/硬度
C10 (MPa)
C20 (MPa)
C30 (MPa)
特征描述
超软硅胶/凝胶
0.01~0.1
-0.001~-0.01
0.0001~0.01
初始模量极低,硬化发生很晚。
天然橡胶 (40A-50A)
0.2~0.5
-0.02~-0.1
0.01~0.05
延展性好,曲线中段有明显的平缓区。
工业级橡胶 (60A-70A)
0.6~1.2
-0.1~-0.5
0.1~0.5
刚度中等,常用于轮胎侧壁或密封圈。
高硬度弹性体 (80A+)
1.5~5.0
-0.5~-2.0
0.5~2.0
硬化发生极早,曲线陡峭。
4. 多项式
多项式超弹模型是也一种基于应变能密度函数 W 对不变量 I1 和 I2 进行幂级数展开的模型。 它是超弹性理论中应用最广泛的框架之一,许多模型(如 Mooney-Rivlin, Yeoh, Neo-Hookean)本质上都是它的特殊形式。 其通用的应变能密度函数 W表示为:
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N是模型的阶数,常用的多项式模型有1-3阶,对应2,5和9参数模型。和Mooney-Rivlin模型一样,拟合计算时,需要保证C10 > 0, 同时保证C10 > |C01|。C30通常也要求为正数。且阶数越高,数值量级通常越小。对于超弹材料,合理的参数范围如下表所示。
参数类别
参数项
典型范围 (MPa)
物理行为说明
基础模量
C10
0.1~0.6
主导中小变形刚度,通常为正值。
剪切修正
C01
0.01~0.1
修正剪切行为,通常为正值。
中段调节
C20
-0.05~0.05
控制曲线中段的斜率变化,常为负值。
大变形硬化
C30
0.001~0.01
控制极高应变下的上扬硬化,必须为正。
耦合项
C11, C02
-0.01~0.01
交叉影响 I1 和 I2通常接近于零。
初始值的设定上,令C10=E/6。C20=-0.1*C10。C30=0.01*C10或更小,C30值虽小,但在高次方放大下对曲线末端影响很大。
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5. Arruda-Boyce
Arruda-Boyce 模型(通常被称为“八链模型”)在超弹性材料仿真中非常独特。是基于统计力学(分子链网络理论)构建的。应变能密度函数 W表示为:
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模型最大的特点就是对测试数据要求低,单轴数据足以起步:与需要多轴数据才能锁定的多项式模型不同,Arruda-Boyce 模型的参数具有明确物理定义,通常仅靠高质量的单轴拉伸数据就能获得相对准确的μ和λm。
初始剪切模量μ的取值范围很直接,必须大于 0,值限定在0.1~5MPa,常见橡胶材料参考值是0.5~1.5MPa之间。λm必须大于1,值通常限定在[1.1, 20]。如果λm太接近 1,模型会变得极其僵硬,导致数值计算极其不稳定。对于大多数工业橡胶,λm设定在 3.0 到 7.0 之间通常能覆盖绝大多数工况。
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初始值的确定也很直接,令μ=E/3。λm=5是一个稳健的起点。
通常情况下,Arruda-Boyce 参数对于橡胶材料有如下对应关系:
材料
μ (MPa)
λm
软橡胶 (Shore 30A – 40A)
0.3~0.6
5.0~8.0
中等硬度 (Shore 50A – 60A)
1.0~2.5
3.0~5.0
硬橡胶 (Shore 70A – 80A)
3.0~8.0
1.5~2.5
6. Blatz-Ko
Blatz-Ko模型是一种形式简单的用于模拟泡沫和多孔材料的模型。最常用的形式仅包含一个参数:剪切模量μ。
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和其他超弹模型一样,剪切模量必须要大于零。泊松比ν是固定的: 该模型的一个理论特性是其有效泊松比被锁定在 0.25 左右。这意味着假设材料在受压时体积会显著缩小,而不是像普通橡胶那样向四周扩张。如果材料是实心橡胶(泊松比接近 0.5,不可压缩),则不要使用 Blatz-Ko 模型。
Blatz-Ko 模型只要确保剪切模量μ是正值,即μ>0且该材料确实是可压缩的泡沫类材料,拟合通常非常直接。
由于泊松比ν通常被固定为0.25。根据线弹性转换关系:μ = E/2(1+ν) = E/2.5 = 0.4E。初始值可以设定为0.4E。
材料类型
μ取值范围(MPa)
说明
超轻质聚氨酯泡沫
0.05~0.5
密度极低,极易压缩变形。
中等密度发泡橡胶
0.5~2.0
常见的减震垫、包装防护材料。
高硬度闭孔泡沫
2.0~10.0
结构支撑用泡沫,刚度较高。
实心可压缩橡胶
10.0+
某些含气泡的特殊合成橡胶。
7. Gent
Gent 模型是一种基于物理意义的超弹性模型,它与 Arruda-Boyce 模型非常相似现象。 该模型最大的优势在于形式简单,仅通过两个常数就能很好地捕捉聚合物链达到极限拉伸长度时的非线性行为。Gent 模型的数学形式是对数函数,拟合计算的开销比 Arruda-Boyce 模型要小。
Gent 模型只有两个核心参数:μ(初始剪切模量) 和Jm(极限不变量)。其应变能密度函数定义为:
Image
参数μ必须严格大于 0。 Jm必须严格大于 I1-3 的最大测量值。 如果 Jm 太小,导致 (I1-3)/Jm <= 1,对数函数ln 会失去意义,计算会报错。
剪切模量μ的初始值确定比较简单,μ=E/3。Jm 在数学上定义了第一不变量I1-3的上限,所以初始值必须略大于实验中观测到的最大变形所对应的不变量值。找到实验数据中最大的伸长率λ_max,计算最大变形对应的I1,注意这里I1的计算,根据实验类型的不同,公式稍有不同。Jm初始值定为1.2 * (I1_max – 3)。
不同硬度材料的经验参数参考如下:
材料硬度/类型
剪切模量μ(MPa)
极限常数Jm
说明
超软凝胶 / 软组织
0.01~0.1
50~150
极易拉伸,极晚进入硬化阶段。
天然橡胶 (40A)
0.3~0.6
30~80
延展性极佳,硬化点较高。
工业橡胶 (60A)
1.0~2.0
10~25
刚度中等,拉伸 3-4 倍后迅速硬化。
高硬度弹性体 (80A)
3.0~7.0
2~8
极短距离内即发生硬化,脆性增加。
8. Ogden
Ogden超弹模型是目前最强大、最灵活的超弹性模型之一。Ogden 模型直接基于主拉伸比(Principal Stretches)λi来构建。 Ogden 模型的应变能密度函数,采用级数叠加形式,按阶数n展开,n代表模型阶数。
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1 阶 Ogden:2 个参数,适合小变形、简单橡胶材料,计算效率最高。
2 阶 Ogden:4 个参数,兼顾精度与效率,是常规工业仿真的主流选择。
3 阶 Ogden:6 个参数,适合大变形、高非线性复杂弹性体,拟合精度最高。 在应变达到 700% 甚至更高的情况下,Ogden 模型依然能保持良好的预测能力。
Ogden模型参数较多,高阶版本需要单轴、纯剪切、等双轴等多组试验数据联合拟合,否则容易出现非物理解、过拟合。参数需要满足热力学稳定性约束,拟合时必须设置合理边界。如令μ1>|μ2|>|μ3|,1<α1<10,-10<α2<10, -15<α3<15。
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曲线拟合的初始值常做如下设置:α1=2, α2=2, α3=6, μ1=0.6*μ0, μ2=0.1*μ0, μ3=0.05*μ0, 其中初始剪切模量μ0=E/3。杨氏模量E通过低应变下的测试数据斜率得到。
常见的Odgen超弹模型拟合出的经验数据如下:
材料类型
参数符号
典型取值范围
特征说明
软橡胶 / 硅胶
μ
0.01~0.5 MPa
模量较小,曲线平缓。
α
-10~10
通常包含正负指数以拟合拉伸和压缩对称性。
工业级硬橡胶
α
1.0~10.0 MPa
刚度高,μ组合后的初始斜率大。
α
1.5~20
较大的正指数用于模拟大变形下的剧烈硬化。
生物软组织
μ
0.001~0.1 MPa
极软,对小变形高度敏感。
α
10~50
指数通常很大,以模拟纤维结缔组织的“锁死”效应。
总结
虽然曲线拟合有着比较成熟的数值计算方法,但是在有限元计算的材料参数拟合上,需要考虑诸多的物理因素,同时要保证拟合出的参数在后续有限元计算中易于收敛。很多时候,由于测试数据的缺乏,使得超弹材料的曲线拟合变得复杂,对开发者和使用者都有比较高的要求。
超弹材料模型拟合所需的测试数据主要有,单轴拉伸,等双轴拉伸 ,和纯剪切变形数据。笔者在《超弹材料模型及其曲线拟合》一文已经有了详细描述。
目前,WELSIM已经具备了准确拟合超弹模型曲线的功能,同时,独立运行的免费工程软件MatEditor和CurveFitter也具有以上曲线拟合功能。用户可以直接下载并使用。
Monday, January 19, 2026
Generate the contact and boundary conditions for the CalculiX solver
CalculiX is a well-known open-source Finite Element Analysis software that focuses on structural mechanics (static, dynamic, nonlinear) and thermal analysis. It is suitable for scientific research, teaching, and small-to-medium engineering scenarios.
The core advantages of CalculiX are as follows:
Open-Source and Free. It is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) which allows individuals, enterprises, and research institutions to freely use, modify, and distribute the source code.
INP File Format Compatibility. It supports the INP input file format used by Abaqus. Most Abaqus models can be directly imported into CalculiX for solving, which lessens the learning curve for users.
Lightweight Solver. The solver features streamlined code and requires less hardware resources compared to commercial software, making it ideal for fast computation of small-to-medium scale models.
Seamless Third-Party Integration. It offers excellent compatibility with third-party preprocessors and postprocessors, facilitating the integration of pre/post-processing tools with the solver.
Press enter or click to view image in full size
In a previous article titled Generate CalculiX solver files using WELSIM, the author introduced methods to quickly generate CalculiX input scripts. Currently, WELSIM serves as a robust preprocessor to generate input files for CalculiX and greatly simplifies the process of performing finite element analysis with CalculiX. This article elaborates on the commands for generating contact and boundary conditions.
Contact
In the finite element structural analysis of multi-body systems, contact setup is an essential step. This section describes the generation of two common contact types: bonded contact and separable contact.
Bonded Contact
Bonded contact is a contact condition used to simulate a fully rigid connection between multiple bodies. It is applicable to scenarios where there is no relative sliding, separation, or gaps between components (e.g., welded joints, adhesive bonds, cured interference fits, and rigid bolted connections). Bonded contact enforces identical nodal displacements across the contact interface, essentially “fusing” multiple independent components into a single integrated structure.
The setup for bonded contact in WELSIM is shown in the figure below.
When converting to CalculiX commands, the *TIE keyword is used. The generated input commands are as follows:
*Tie, Name=ID_15, Position tolerance=0.01, Adjust=No
Target_Surface_15, Master_Surface_15
The surface elements defined in the mesh file are as follows:
** Box_to_Box_1
*SURFACE, TYPE=ELEMENT, NAME=Master_Surface_15
70, S2 63, S2 74, S2 61, S2 66, S1 69, S2
** Box_to_Box_1*SURFACE, TYPE=ELEMENT, NAME=Target_Surface_15
166, S3 185, S2 160, S3 173, S2 171, S4 169, S3
Separable Contact
Separable contact is a nonlinear contact condition used to simulate three interface states between multiple bodies: contact, sliding, and separation. Its core characteristic is that the contact interface only transmits normal pressure (no tensile forces) and allows free sliding or sticking in the tangential direction. It is suitable for scenarios involving dynamic contact and separation between components (e.g., gear engagement, sheet metal forming, bearing rolling, and mechanical impact). Based on friction assumptions, it can be further grouped into frictionless contact and frictional contact.
The setup for seperable contact in WELSIM is shown in the figure below.
When converting to CalculiX commands, the *CONTACT keyword is used. It is important to note that CalculiX requires that the master surface (also known as the independent surface) is defined using elements. The slave surface (also known as the dependent surface) can be defined using either elements or nodes.
The corresponding generated CalculiX commands are as follows:
** Box_to_Box 1
*Surface interaction, Name=SurfaceInteraction_15
*Surface behavior, Pressure-overclosure=Hard
*Friction 0.15
*Contact Pair, Interaction=SurfaceInteraction_15, Type=Surface to surface
Target_Surface_15, Master_Surface_15
Boundary conditions in structural analysis
Setting boundary conditions is a critical step in finite element analysis and a key function of preprocessing software for generating solver commands. WELSIM supports a wide range of CalculiX boundary conditions. This section demonstrates how a preprocessor generates boundary conditions for structural analysis and presents the corresponding solver commands.
1. Constraints or Displacement
Displacement boundary conditions are essential (Dirichlet) boundary conditions used to constrain the nodal displacement degrees of freedom (DOFs) of a model. Their role is to restrict the rigid-body motion of the structure and simulate real-world support constraints (e.g., fixed supports, pin supports), serving as the foundational conditions for static and dynamic structural analysis. In regards to 3D models:
For solid elements, translational DOFs in the X/Y/Z directions (Ux/Uy/Uz) can be constrained.
For shell elements, additional rotational DOFs about the X/Y/Z axes (Rx/Ry/Rz) can be constrained.
The corresponding generated CalculiX solver commands are as follows:
** BC Name: Displacement
*Boundary ID_22, 1, 1, 1
*Boundary ID_22, 2, 2, 2
*Boundary ID_22, 3, 3, 3
*Boundary ID_22, 6, 6, 0.523599
2. Pressure
Pressure boundary conditions are surface loads applied to structural surfaces, classified as distributed loads. Their essence is to simulate engineering scenarios involving fluid pressure, contact pressure, gas loads, etc., by specifying the normal force per unit area (e.g., internal pressure in pressure vessels, wind loads, lateral soil pressure).
Pressure is one of the most common boundary conditions in structural finite element analysis. The sign convention for pressure determines the load direction. Positive Pressure: The load direction points toward the interior of the surface, causing a compressive effect on the structure (e.g., internal pressure in pressure vessels). Negative Pressure: The load direction points away from the exterior of the surface, causing a tensile effect on the structure (e.g., atmospheric pressure on the outer wall of a vacuum vessel).
The pressure boundary condition setup is shown in the figure below.
The corresponding generated solver commands are as follows:
** BC Name: Pressure
*DLOAD ID_20, P, 123
3. Force
Force boundary conditions are loads applied to geometric key points, edges, or surfaces, used to simulate localized loading scenarios in engineering (e.g., bolt preload, lifting eye tension, pin forces). Force is one of the most fundamental boundary conditions in structural mechanics.
However, applying force on geometric surfaces in the finite element numerical method is non-trivial. It typically involves coupling the DOFs of multiple nodes to a single reference node, which then used to distribute a concentrated load across a group of nodes (e.g., applying the force to the reference node, which is then automatically distributed to the coupled group).
As shown in the figure, in the force setup of WELSIM, the user can select surfaces, edges, or points of the geometry and specify the force magnitudes in the three coordinate directions.
The generated solver commands for the force are as follows:
*COUPLING, REF NODE=46, SURFACE=ID_17, CONSTRAINT NAME=c17
*KINEMATIC 1 3
** BC Name: Force
*CLOAD, OP=NEW 46, 1, 100
*CLOAD, OP=NEW 46, 2, 200
*CLOAD, OP=NEW 46, 3, 300
4. Nodal Force
Nodal force boundary conditions are concentrated loads applied directly to single or multiple nodes. They represent the most fundamental form of load application after meshing. Nodal forces are more oriented toward direct post-meshing operations, making them suitable for refined load control or special scenario simulations.
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Nodal forces are loads applied directly to the mesh nodes. The total applied force is the superposition of forces based on the number of nodes selected.
The generated solver commands are straightforward, using *CLOAD to apply loads based on the selected nodes:
** BC Name: Nodal Force
*CLOAD ID_18, 1, 10
*CLOAD ID_18, 2, 20
*CLOAD ID_18, 3, 30
** Nodal_Force
*NSET, NSET=ID_18
82, 84, 86, 88, 95, 96, 103, 104, 107, 108,
111, 112, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150
5. Gravity
Gravity boundary conditions fall under the category of body forces, used to simulate the effect of the Earth’s gravitational field on the structure. They work by assigning an inertial force proportional to the mass to each element of the model. Gravity is applicable to almost all structural analyses involving self-weight effects (e.g., building beams and slabs, mechanical components, ground-based spacecraft conditions).
Gravity is essentially a body force induced by acceleration, and its magnitude is directly proportional to the mass of the elements. The setup in WELSIM is shown in the figure below.
The generated solver commands are as follows:
** DC Name: Earth Gravity
*Dload Eall, Grav, 9.807, 0, 0, -1
6. Rotational Velocity
Rotational velocity boundary conditions are used to simulate the scenario where a structure rotates uniformly around an axis. This condition induces centrifugal forces and Coriolis forces (which need to be considered for high-speed rotation) within the structure. Classified as inertial loads, they are widely applied in the analysis of rotating machinery (e.g., flywheels, impellers, centrifuges, turbine rotors).
The input parameters include the axis of rotation, the origin of rotation, and the magnitude of the rotational velocity. The input setup is shown in the figure below.
Press enter or click to view image in full size
The generated solver commands are as follows:
** DC Name: Rotational Velocity
*Dload ID_21, CENTRIF, 100, 5, 5, 0, 0, 0, 1
Common boundary in thermal analysis
1. Temperature
In finite element thermal analysis, temperature boundary conditions are essential (Dirichlet) boundary conditions that directly define the temperature values of specific regions of the model. They are suitable for scenarios where the surface or nodal temperatures are known (e.g., the wall of a constant-temperature water tank, components in contact with a large heat source, temperature-controlled surfaces of thermal equipment).
In the heat conduction governing equation, temperature boundary conditions act as enforced constraints, directly fixing the temperature DOFs of the boundary nodes. The solver prioritizes satisfying these constraints before calculating the internal temperature field distribution. The setup for WELSIM is shown in the figure below.
The generated CalculiX solver commands are as follows,
** BC Name: Temperature
*Boundary, op=New ID_23, 11, 11, 0
Heat Flux
The heat flux boundary condition is a thermal load that directly defines the heat flow rate per unit area across a solid surface. It is suitable for scenarios where the heat input or output on a surface is known (e.g., the surface of an electric heater, solar collectors, walls subjected to high-temperature gas impingement).
Heat flux is a core parameter where a positive direction indicates heat flowing into the solid, and a negative direction indicates heat flowing out of the solid. The input interface is shown below.
The generated CalculiX solver commands are as follows:
** BC Name: Heat Flux
*Dflux ID_24, S, 0.5
Body Heat Flux
Body heat flux is a volumetric thermal load used to simulate heat generation or dissipation from internal heat sources within a solid. Unlike surface heat flux boundary conditions, body heat flux is applied directly to the volume elements of the model instead of acting on surfaces, making it suitable for temperature field analysis driven by internal heat sources.
The unit of body heat flux in the SI system is W/m³, where positive values indicate heat generation, and negative values indicate heat absorption. The user input interface is shown below.
The generated CalculiX solver commands are as follows:
*DFLUX
ID_31,BF,10.
Convection
Convection boundary conditions, also known as film boundary conditions, are used to simulate convective heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid (gas or liquid). They are one of the most commonly used boundary conditions in engineering thermal analysis, with applications in electronic device cooling, pipe heat exchange, automotive engine cooling, and other scenarios.
The convection heat transfer coefficient is the core parameter characterizing the intensity of convective heat transfer, while the ambient temperature parameter refers to the temperature of the mainstream fluid far from the solid surface. The input interface in WELSIM is shown below.
The generated CalculiX solver commands are as follows:
** BC Name: Convection
*Film, op=New
ID_29_S1, F1, 80, 123
ID_29_S2, F2, 80, 123
ID_29_S3, F3, 80, 123
ID_29_S4, F4, 80, 123
Thermal radiation
The radiation boundary condition is used to simulate heat transfer between a solid surface and the surrounding environment (potentially other solid surfaces) via thermal radiation. It is fundamentally governed by the Stefan–Boltzmann law and is suitable for heat exchange scenarios in media such as vacuum or gas (e.g., spacecraft thermal control, heat dissipation from high-temperature equipment). As a nonlinear boundary condition, the heat flux is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature, requiring iterative calculations for solution.
Users are required to input two parameters: emissivity (a value between 0 and 1) and the ambient temperature. The input interface is shown below.
The generated commands for the thermal radiation boundary condition are as follows:
** BC Name: Radiation
*Radiate, op=New
ID_30_S1, R1, 30, 0.9
ID_30_S2, R2, 30, 0.9
ID_30_S3, R3, 30, 0.9
ID_30_S4, R4, 30, 0.9
Conclusion
In finite element analysis, there is a wide variety of boundary conditions that involve not only the parameters of the conditions themselves, but also the selected elements or nodes. For preprocessing software, generating commands for various boundary conditions is a complex undertaking.
WELSIM is capable of establishing a comprehensive range of boundary conditions and can quickly generate any input files required by the CalculiX solver, which can be directly used for computation. Users can leverage WELSIM as a preprocessor for CalculiX.
CalculiX also supports some additional boundary conditions such as *CONSTRAINT and *EQUATION. These were not discussed in this article as they are less frequently used in standard analyses.
The input file format of CalculiX is highly similar to that of Abaqus; therefore, the content described in this article can also be applied to the Abaqus solver.
Disclaimer: WelSim and the author are not affiliated with CalculiX or Abaqus, and have no direct relationship with the development teams or organizations behind CalculiX and Abaqus. The use of open-source software names and images herein is solely for reference in technical blog articles and software usage guidance.
Thursday, January 15, 2026
生成CalculiX求解器的接触与边界条件
CalculiX 是一款著名的开源有限元分析(FEA)软件,主打结构力学(静力、动力、非线性)与热分析,适用于科研、教学和中小型工程场景。CalculiX的核心优势有:开源免费。个人、企业、科研机构均可自由使用、修改和分发代码,遵循 GNU GPL 许可证。兼容支持 Abaqus 的 INP 输入文件格式,多数 Abaqus 模型也可直接导入 CalculiX 求解,减少学习曲线。求解器代码精简,对硬件资源要求低于商业软件,适合中小型模型的快速计算。对第三方前后端软件支持也非常好,易于前后处理器与求解器的整合。
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笔者曾在《使用WELSIM生成CalculiX求解器文件》一文中,介绍了如何快速地生成CalculiX输入文件。目前,WELSIM已经可以很好的作为CalculiX的前处理器生成输入文本,极大的方便用户使用CalculiX进行有限元分析。本文以更详细的方式介绍生成接触与边界条件的命令。
接触
在多体有限元结构分析中,接触是必要的设置之一。本章节描述生成两种常见的接触类型:绑定接触和可分离接触。
绑定接触
绑定接触是一种用于模拟多体之间完全刚性连接的接触条件,适用于部件间无相对滑移、无分离、无间隙的工况(如焊接、胶粘、过盈配合后固化、螺栓紧固的刚性连接)。绑定接触会强制接触界面的节点位移完全一致,等同于将多个独立部件 “融合” 为一个整体结构。
绑定接触设置如下图所示,
Image
转换成CalculiX命令时,使用*TIE 命令。生成的输入命令如下
*Tie, Name=ID_15, Position tolerance=0.01, Adjust=No
Target_Surface_15, Master_Surface_15
在网格文件中,定义的表面单元如下:
** Box_to_Box_1
*SURFACE, TYPE=ELEMENT, NAME=Master_Surface_15
70, S2
63, S2
74, S2
61, S2
66, S1
69, S2
** Box_to_Box_1
*SURFACE, TYPE=ELEMENT, NAME=Target_Surface_15
166, S3
185, S2
160, S3
173, S2
171, S4
169, S3
可分离接触
可分离接触是一种用于模拟多体接触界面允许接触、滑移、分离三种状态的非线性接触条件,核心特点是接触界面仅传递法向压力,无拉力作用,且切向可自由滑移或黏着,适用于部件间存在动态接触与分离的工况(如齿轮啮合、冲压成型、轴承滚动、机械碰撞)。根据摩擦力假设,又分为无摩擦接触和有摩擦接触。
WELSIM设置接触如下图所示,
Image
转换成CalculiX命令时,使用CONTACT命令。这里值得注意的是,CalculiX规定,主接触面又称作独立接触面,必须是以单元定义的表面。被动接触面又称作是依赖接触面,可以是单元定义的表面,也可以是节点定义的表面。
生成对应的CalculiX命令为
** Box_to_Box 1
*Surface interaction, Name=SurfaceInteraction_15
*Surface behavior, Pressure-overclosure=Hard
*Friction
0.15
*Contact Pair, Interaction=SurfaceInteraction_15, Type=Surface to surface
Target_Surface_15, Master_Surface_15
结构分析中的边界条件
设置边界条件是有限元分析中重要的步骤,也是前处理软件生成求解器命令的重要部分。WELSIM支持大量CalculiX的边界条件。本章节演示前处理器生成结构分析中的边界条件,并显示对应的求解器命令。
1. 固定边界或位移
位移边界条件是用于约束模型节点位移自由度的本质边界条件,其作用是限制结构的刚体运动、模拟实际支撑约束(如固定支座、铰支座),是结构静力、动力分析的基础条件。 3维模型中,对于实体单元,可以施加X/Y/Z方向的平移(Ux/Uy/Uz),对于壳单元,可以施加额外的绕 X/Y/Z 轴转动的转动(Rx/Ry/Rz)。
Image
对应生成的CalculiX求解器命令是,
** BC Name: Displacement
*Boundary
ID_22, 1, 1, 1
*Boundary
ID_22, 2, 2, 2
*Boundary
ID_22, 3, 3, 3
*Boundary
ID_22, 6, 6, 0.523599
2. 压力
压力边界条件是一种作用于结构表面的面载荷,属于分布载荷,其本质是通过指定单位面积上的法向力来模拟流体压力、接触压力、气体载荷等工程场景(如压力容器内壁压力、风载荷、土壤侧压力)。
压力是结构有限元分析中常见的边界条件之一。压力的符号规则决定载荷方向:正压力:载荷方向指向表面内侧,对结构产生压缩效应(如压力容器内壁压力);负压力:载荷方向背离表面外侧,对结构产生拉伸效应(如真空容器外壁的大气压力)。压力边界条件如图所示,
Image
对应生成的求解器命令是,
** BC Name: Pressure
*DLOAD
ID_20, P, 123
3. 力
力边界条件是作用于几何关键点、线、或者面的载荷,用于模拟工程中局部位置的受力工况(如螺栓预紧力、吊环拉力、销钉作用力)。 力是结构力学中最常见的边界条件,然而, 对于有限元数值方法中,几何面上的力边界条件的施加并不简单,通常是将多个节点的自由度耦合到一个参考节点,常用于将集中载荷分散到节点组(如把力加在参考节点,自动分配到耦合组)。
如图所示,在前处理器的力设置中,用户可以选定几何体的面,线,或点,并给定三个方向上的力大小。
Image
得到力的求解器命令如下,
*COUPLING, REF NODE=46, SURFACE=ID_17, CONSTRAINT NAME=c17
*KINEMATIC
1
3
** BC Name: Force
*CLOAD, OP=NEW
46, 1, 100
*CLOAD, OP=NEW
46, 2, 200
*CLOAD, OP=NEW
46, 3, 300
4. 节点力
节点力边界条件是直接作用于单个或多个节点的集中力载荷,是有限元离散化后最基础的载荷施加形式,与之前提到的集中力边界条件高度关联,但更偏向于网格离散后的直接操作,常用于精细化载荷控制或特殊工况模拟。
节点力是直接施加在网格节点上的力,根据节点数量大小,综合施加的力会叠加。
Image
生成的求解器命令也非常简单明了,根据所选的节点,施加CLOAD载荷。
** BC Name: Nodal Force
*CLOAD
ID_18, 1, 10
*CLOAD
ID_18, 2, 20
*CLOAD
ID_18, 3, 30
** Nodal_Force
*NSET, NSET=ID_18
82, 84, 86, 88, 95, 96, 103, 104, 107, 108,
111, 112, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150
5. 重力
重力边界条件属于体积力(Body Force) 范畴,用于模拟地球引力场对结构的作用,是通过给模型的每个单元分配与质量成正比的惯性力,适用于几乎所有包含自重影响的结构分析(如建筑梁板、机械部件、航天器地面工况)。
重力的本质是加速度场作用下的体积力,其大小与单元的质量直接相关。前处理器设置如下,
Image
生成的求解器命令如下图所示。
** DC Name: Earth Gravity
*Dload
Eall, Grav, 9.807, 0, 0, -1
6. 旋转角速度
旋转角速度边界条件用于模拟结构绕某一轴做匀速转动的工况,会在结构内部产生离心力和科里奥利力(高速转动时需考虑),属于惯性载荷范畴,广泛应用于旋转机械分析(如飞轮、叶轮、离心机、涡轮转子)。
输入的参数有旋转轴,旋转原点,和角速度的大小。输入界面如下图所示。
Image
生成的求解器命令如下所示。
** DC Name: Rotational Velocity
*Dload
ID_21, CENTRIF, 100, 5, 5, 0, 0, 0, 1
热分析中的常见边界与初始条件
1. 温度
在有限元热分析中,温度边界条件是直接定义模型特定区域温度值的约束条件,属于本质边界条件(Dirichlet 边界条件),适用于已知表面或节点温度的场景(如恒温水箱壁面、与大热源接触的部件、温控设备的设定温度面)。
在热传导控制方程中,温度边界条件是强制约束,会直接固定边界节点的温度自由度,求解时优先满足该约束,再计算内部温度场分布。 前处理器设置如下,
Image
生成的CalculiX求解器命令如下,
** BC Name: Temperature
*Boundary, op=New
ID_23, 11, 11, 0
2. 热流密度
热流密度(Heat Flux)边界条件是直接定义单位面积上通过固体表面的热流量的边界设置,属于热载荷的一种,适用于已知表面热流输入 / 输出的场景(如电加热器表面、太阳能集热板、高温燃气冲刷壁面)。
热流密度是核心参数,正方向为热量流入固体,负方向为热量流出。输入界面如下:
Image
生成的CalculiX求解器命令如下:
** BC Name: Heat Flux
*Dflux
ID_24, S, 0.5
3. 体热流密度
体积热流是一种体载荷,用于模拟物体内部热源产生或消耗热量的过程,区别于作用在表面的热流密度边界条件,它直接作用于模型的体单元,适用于内热源驱动的温度场分析。
体积热流密度,SI单位为 W/m3(正号表示生成热量,负号表示消耗热量),用户输入界面如下:
Image
生成的CalculiX求解器命令如下,
*DFLUX
ID_31,BF,10.
4. 对流
对流(Convection)边界条件又称膜(Film)边界条件。是用于模拟固体表面与相邻流体(气体或液体)之间对流换热的边界设置,是工程热分析中最常用的边界条件之一,广泛应用于电子设备散热、管道换热、汽车发动机冷却等场景。
对流换热系数是表征对流换热强度的核心参数,环境温度参数是远离固体表面的主流流体温度。前处理器中的输入界面如下,
Image
生成的CalculiX求解器命令如下:
** BC Name: Convection
*Film, op=New
ID_29_S1, F1, 80, 123
ID_29_S2, F2, 80, 123
ID_29_S3, F3, 80, 123
ID_29_S4, F4, 80, 123
5. 热辐射边界条件
辐射边界条件是用于模拟物体表面与周围环境(或其他物体表面)之间通过热辐射方式传递热量的边界设置,其核心遵循斯蒂芬–玻尔兹曼定律,适用于真空、气体等介质的热交换场景(如航天器热控、高温设备散热)。辐射边界条件,是一种非线性边界条件,热流与温度的四次方成正比,求解时需要迭代计算。
用户需要输入的参数为发射率(Emissivity),介于0-1之间的数值,和环境温度。输入界面如下,
Image
生成的热辐射边界条件命令如下,
** BC Name: Radiation
*Radiate, op=New
ID_30_S1, R1, 30, 0.9
ID_30_S2, R2, 30, 0.9
ID_30_S3, R3, 30, 0.9
ID_30_S4, R4, 30, 0.9
总结
有限元分析中,边界条件的类型较多,涉及了条件的参数本身,也涉及到所选择的单元,或节点。对于前处理器来说,生成各种边界条件的命令,是一项复杂的工程。
WELSIM已经可以很好的设置各种边界条件,能够快速生成CalculiX求解器所需要的输入文件,并可以直接用于计算。用户可以使用WELSIM作为CalculiX的前处理器。
CalculiX还有少量边界条件,如Constraint和Equation等, 由于常规分析中较少使用,本文未作讨论。
CalculiX与Abaqus的输入文件格式有着很大的相似性,因此,本文所描述的内容,也可以用于Abaqus求解器。
WelSim与作者不隶属于CalculiX, Abaqus。和CalculiX与Abaqus开发团队与机构没有直接关系。这里引用开源软件的名称和图片仅用作技术博客文章与软件使用的参考。
Monday, January 12, 2026
WELSIM 2026R1 Releases to Support Particle Generation and Enhance Electromagnetic Simulation
WELSIM, the general-purpose engineering simulation and analysis software, has released its latest version 2026R1 (Internal Version: 3.2). Compared to the previous version, 2026R1 comes with a host of new features and enhancements, enabling WELSIM to better support various types of engineering simulation CAE analyses, with notable improvements in particle and electromagnetic simulation capabilities.
Support for Particle Generation
The new version introduces particle generation from geometric models, along with the ability to adjust particle generation methods and particle density. This feature simplifies the setup of smoothed particle and molecular dynamics simulations in WELSIM.
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WELSIM is committed to supporting open data exchange, so users can also export particle data to VTK-format files for visualization or further analysis in other software tools.
Enhanced Support for the OpenRadioss Solver
Become a member
The latest version improves compatibility with the OpenRadioss solver, allowing WELSIM to generate more types of OpenRadioss input files. The newly added input cards include: Fabric Geometric Property /PROP/TYPE16, Self-contact /INTER/TYPE24, and the SPH Cell Command SPHCEL. Meanwhile, a wide range of new material properties have been incorporated, such as LAW6 (HYD_VISC), LAW24 (CONC), LAW25 (COMPSH), LAW58 (FABR_A), LAW73, and LAW74. MatEditor, the standalone material editing software, has been updated with the same features accordingly.
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Enhanced Support for Palace
The new version strengthens compatibility with Palace, the open-source electromagnetic solver. WELSIM now supports more Palace solver types and fully upgrades Palace and its dependent libraries to their latest versions. On the post-processing model, the Poynting Vector result type has been added.
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Other Enhancements and Upgrades
With this release, WELSIM is more stable and user-friendly through optimizations to existing features.
Disclaimer: WELSIM and its authors are not affiliated with OpenRadioss or Palace, nor do they have any connection with the respective development teams and organizations. The references to OpenRadioss and Palace herein are solely for informational purposes in technical blog posts and software usage guidance.
Monday, January 5, 2026
WELSIM发布2026R1版本,支持粒子生成,增强电磁计算
通用工程仿真分析软件WELSIM发布了最新的2026R1版本(内部版本号3.2)。相对于上一个版本,2026R1版本含有许多新的功能与增强,能够更好地支持各种类型的工程仿真CAE分析,尤其是更好的支持粒子与电磁计算。
Image
增强对粒子生成的支持
新版本增加了从几何体生成粒子的功能,同时可以调整粒子生成的方式和粒子密度。这个功能使得WELSIM在光滑粒子和分子动力学仿真上更加简单。
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WELSIM一贯支持数据的交换与开放。用户还可以将粒子数据导出为VTK格式的文件,在其他软件上进行显示或分析。
增强对OpenRadioss求解器的支持
新版本支持增加对OpenRadioss的支持,使用WELSIM能生成更多类型的Radioss的输入文件。新增的Radioss输入卡片有:织物几何属性 /PROP/TYPE16,自接触 /INTER/TYPE24,SPH单元命令 SPHCEL。同时,新增了众多材料属性如:LAW6(HYD_VISC) ,LAW24 (CONC), LAW25 (COMPSH) ,LAW58 (FABR_A),LAW73, LAW74等。独立材料编辑软件MatEditor,也同步增加了相同功能。
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增强对Palace的支持
新版本增强了对开源电磁求解器Palace的支持。支持了更多的Palace 求解类型。同时全面升级了Palace及其依赖库到最新的版本。在后处理上,增加了坡印廷矢量计算结果的显示。
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其他增强与升级
此外,新版本还对已有功能进行了优化与升级,使得WELSIM更稳定更加易于使用。
WelSim与作者不隶属于OpenRadioss和Palace, 和以上开发团队与机构没有关系。这里引用OpenRadioss, Palace 仅用作技术博客文章与软件使用的参考。
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